When studying a new topic, secondary sources, such as text books can be very useful. Here is an excerpt from a book called "The Medieval Realms" by Nigel Kelly:

"By the beginning of the Middle Ages much of Europe was Christian. However, the land where Jesus lived and was crucified, (the Holy Land) was controlled by Muslims – people who followed the teaching of the prophet Muhammed.

Until 1095, the Muslims allowed Christians to visit the Holy Land and thousands of pilgrims travelled to Jerusalem to see where Jesus died and was buried. But in 1095, the Holy Land was captured by Muslims from Turkey. They would not allow Christian pilgrims to visit and killed many of those who ignored their instructions."

We have heard that the advantage of a primary source is that it was written at the time of the event and that it can give a very personal picture of what happened. But the advantage of a good secondary source is obvious as well. It can bring together a lot of information from different sources and put it together so that it is easily read and understood. In just two paragraphs the writer explained some of the reasons why there was a conflict between Christians and Muslims in Palestine (the Holy Land).

Between the 11th and the 13th centuries Christian knights from Europe travelled to Palestine to wage a "holy war" against these Muslim forces. These military campaigns were called the Crusades and the goal was to put the whole area under the control of Christian rulers. Jerusalem, a town in Palestine, was considered to be at the centre of the world, because that is where Jesus was crucified. This picture is from the Mappa Mundi and shows Jerusalem.

© Hereford Cathedral Library

People joined the crusades for a variety of reasons. Some wanted adventure and riches, some sought glory, and others went for religious reasons. The Pope, the head of the church, had promised anyone who went to fight "the infidel" (unbelievers) forgiveness for their sins. As a result of this many knights from England left their homes, often for many years, to join a crusade. Many crusaders were recruited at religious mass rallies, where, in the heat of the moment, carried away by their emotions, they signed up. Even after the luckless crusader sobered up, he was forced to carry out his pledge because a broken vow was punished with excommunication.

The emergence of cities aided this crusading effort further as the rise of trade and a money economy freed many peasants from the land and drove them to the new centres seeking a new life. Many of these men and even women became the hangers-on in various crusades.

Kings too sometimes fought in the crusades. King Richard (the Lionheart) 1189-1199, for example, spent the first three years of his reign away from England. Bartholomew Mortimer and Roger de Lacy from Herefordshire, accompanied him. They had gone to the Holy Land to defeat Saladin, the Sultan of Egypt and leader of the Muslim forces.

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Here is what two primary sources say about Saladin:

"…he earned a disgraceful income from running brothels. He also devoted much of his time to taverns and gaming. When he became ruler he took over surrounding countries either by force or trickery…"

"He also made sure that his men were fed and cared for properly when they were ill. So pure was his character that he would not allow a bad word to be said about anyone, preferring to hear only about their good points."

Is this a description of the same man? Which description is true? Are they both exaggerated? Are they biased? How do you make up your mind which one is closer to the truth? You might also want to ask why each of these descriptions was written in the first place.

Trying to make sense of sources involves interpretation. That is another advantage of a reliable secondary source: the historian has looked at all the evidence, has compared it to other sources and has tried to sort through all the biased material. Of course, no one is perfect and most books will show bias of one kind or another. Sometimes there is the problem that we just do not have enough primary material. That is why it is important that we look at a variety of sources and that we don’t automatically believe everything we read in a book or on a web site!

Whatever the truth about the character of Saladin, in the end, he could not be defeated and the crusaders returned home without having achieved the conquest of the Holy Land.

Knights from Herefordshire also went to fight in the crusades. One of them was William de Valance who held Goodrich Castle.

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Sometimes stories and legends grow out of historical events and we find it difficult to separate fact from fiction. One such story concerns Eleanor, the wife of Grimbald Pauncefort who was captured during the crusades. Supposedly she received a ransom letter which requested she send a "digit" of her body. Duly she ordered a doctor to chop off one of her hands and sent it to Tunis, whereupon her husband was returned. Duncumb, an early 19th century historian, uses this story to illustrate the popular appeal of the crusading movement:

"Impelled by the extraordinary but general enthusiasm of the times, this Grimbaldus distinguished himself in the expedition against Tunis, but being taken prisoner, a joint of his wife is supposed to have been demanded by the captor, as the only price of his liberty. The fame of her beauty might possibly have suggested this cruel ransom, and the lady, urged by affection for her husband, and by zeal in what was deemed a sacred cause, made no hesitation in complying with the terms proposed, by cutting off her left hand above the wrist, and forwarding it to her husband. This is supposed to have effected his release…"

This couple's monument was in the east end of the south aisle of Cowarne church and was described by Silas Taylor in the 16^th century:

"…the stump of the woman's arm is somewhat elevated, as if to attract notice; and the hand and wrist, cut off, are carved close to his left side, with the right hand on his armour, as if for note."

Unfortunately little remains of this medieval monument, which seemingly provided some evidence for the truth of this remarkable story.

Priests were not allowed to fight, but some men wanted to be both men of God and knights. Hence the Crusades provided new opportunities for men who wanted to combine a religious vocation with the life of the warrior.

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The Knights Templar  were founded before 1125 to defend Jerusalem and the Knights Hospitallers (also called the Knights of St. John) in 1144 to aid and protect Christian pilgrims, who were travelling to Jerusalem.

These knights wore special garments and were not allowed to marry. They did not own any personal property, but lived together in houses owned by their order. The knights of both orders were supposed to lead a life of prayer, combined with military training and fighting for their religion.

©Hereford Record Office

The Knights Templar in Herefordshire

In 1187 Henry II granted 2000 acres of land to the Knights Templars in Archenfield. They built a church and farms in and around Garway.

An administrative centre, called a Preceptory, was set-up to look after the farming and business interests of the order on their estates in Herefordshire. There would have been a knight, a priest and several serving brothers. Sometimes knights who were injured in the Crusades, or were old or ill, retired on one of the country estates.

The Templars held several other properties in Herefordshire: a Preceptory at Upleadon, land in Bosbury, a chapel at Harewood and some smaller possessions.

Not just historian have to interpret sources, archaeologists too have to interpret findings and sites. In Garway, for example, the nave or main part of the church is in the usual rectangular shape. However, during digs in 1927, the foundations for a previous round nave were uncovered. What did this mean?

The churches of the Templars were round, such as the Holy Sepulchre Church in Jerusalem. It is said that the plan for the Garway Templar church is almost identical to that of the Temple Church in London. Archaeologists concluded that this site had once been the site of a Knights Templar church and the investigation of written sources backed-up this interpretation.

There is also an impressive dovecote at Garway (link to section on dovecotes) and other agricultural remains, such as fish ponds.

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When Palestine fell to the Muslim forces, there was no active military role for the knights anymore. The Order of the Knights Templars had become very rich and powerful and both the King of France and the Pope felt threatened. In 1307 the Templars were accused of terrible crimes against the Church and arrested.

In England, for example, influential Templars were imprisoned in the Tower of London and tortured. Two knights were arrested in Garway, Philip de Mewes and William de Pokelington. Philip de Mewes, the last Templar preceptor in Herefordshire, was tortured and charged with heresy . Both he and William de Pokelington admitted to false beliefs and publicly confessed. They were absolved and accepted back into the church. However, the English Grand Master James de Molay was not so fortunate. He was taken to Paris and slowly burned to death over a charcoal fire.

All the Templar possessions and estates were confiscated and eventually the Pope decided that their rivals, the Knights Hospitallers should take over these estates and churches. Therefore in 1324 the Preceptory of Garway was taken over by the Hospitallers.

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King Richard I gave a grant to the Knights of St. John to establish the Preceptory at Dinmore and as we have read, the knights were granted Garway, after the Templars were dissolved.

From original account books of Dinmore (which you can find at the Hereford Records Office), we know that it was a busy administrative centre for many properties and farms. It was also a retirement place for knights and for men who paid a large sum of money to the order so that they could retire there in their old age to be looked after and given an annual pension. This is a very early form of pension planning.

Dinmore Manor (as it is today) with its medieval chapel © Chris Musson

Offering hospitality, that means food and drink and a place to stay for a traveller, was another role of the Preceptory. As part of its charitable calling, Dinmore also supported a small hospital for men in Hereford.  This former hospital is now a museum.

This is a pupil's drawing of the skeleton at St.John Medieval Museum.

When the Pope would not allow King Henry VIII to divorce his wife, Henry decided to take over the Church in England himself. In 1536 Parliament passed an act to dissolve, that means to close down, many religious communities. During this period of the "Dissolution of the Monasteries", many monasteries and convents were plundered and their lands and wealth given to the King.

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In 1540 King Henry VIII ordered that also the Order of St. John should be dissolved in England. The prior of each Preceptory had to make a list of the possessions and estates of the order in his area. This list, also called an inventory, is a good primary source.

From this list, for example, we know that Dinmore had had at least two water mills, one on the River Lugg and one at Shottesbrook.

The members of the order were forbidden to wear the dress of the order or to use their titles. After 1540 all the properties went to new owners and the King benefited from the sale or the leases.

[note: A John Scudamore bought 110 acres of pasture called "Kentchurch Park", land which had previously belonged to the Knights of St.John. This land was part of a medieval deerpark.]

The Hereford Record Office holds some sources with regard to the Order of St.John in this county. These are: Richard Hollins Murray, "Dinmore Manor and the Commandery of the Knights Hospitallers of St.John of Jerusalem at Dinmore" (1936)- BG30/5 and references to the order in Monasticon Anglicanum Vol VII pp 762, 784-812.

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TFM